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Wednesday, July 11, 2012 8:06 AM By surendra


A REPORT  ON
“PHYSIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE WATER SAMPLE COLLECTED FROM          DHULIKHEL”



SUBMITTED TO:
DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES(CHEMISTRY)
KATHMANDU UNIVERSITY
DHULIKHEL, KAVRE,
NEPAL.


SUBMITTED BY:
SUNIL BHATTARAI (03)
BASUDEV JOSHI (08)
DEPENDRA UPRETI (30)

DATE: 23rd DECEMBER 2010





Acknowledgement
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the department of chemistry for providing us the opportunity to conduct this project. We also like to thank our supervisors Mr. Rajib Shrestha, Mr. Kuldeep Chhetri  for the proper guidance. We would also like to thank the lab technicians who provided valuable help during the work.






















Abstract
In this project we brought ground and surface water sample from Dhulikhel to test its quality and for which purpose this water can be used. We studied many physical as well as chemical parameters of the water.
Physical Parameters: pH, conductivity and temperature.
Chemical Parameters: Na, Cl, K, Fe++, Fe+++, NO2‾, NO3‾, Po4, Mn, Cr, DO (Dissolved Oxygen). The value of pH, Conductivity, temperature, CL, K, Fe++, Fe+++, NO2‾, NO3‾, Po4, Mn, Cr, DO (Dissolved Oxygen) were found to be:-

PH, A= 6.6                                                                     B=7.4
Conductivity A= 2.02milli siemen         ,                     B=1.64milli siemen
Temperature, A=19oC                                                   B=18oC
Na, A= 30.1ppm                                                            B=30ppm
K, A=11.7ppm                                                               B=32.4ppm
Fe++, A=0.785ppm                                                         B=0.885ppm
Fe+++, A=0.62ppm                                                          B=0.66ppm
NO2‾, A=0.08ppm                                                           B=0.247ppm
NO3‾,A=0.867ppm                                                         B=3.267ppm
DO, A= 5.33ppm                                                            B=9.6ppm
Hardness, A=11.2ppm                                                   B=8.2ppm
Chloride, A=31.694ppm                                                B=37.691ppm
All the parameters are found within the limits of WHO.


INTRODUCTION

Water is persistence for life. All living things depend absolutely on supply of water. Water is mainly used for drinking, irrigation, household purposes in our daily life.
Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of litho logic formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the surface naturally; natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology.
Typically, groundwater is thought of as liquid water flowing through shallow aquifers, but technically it can also include soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in very low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of the Earth's subsurface contain some water, which may be mixed with other fluids in some instances. Groundwater may not be confined only to the Earth.
We choosed Dhulikhel’s surface and ground water for our project for analytical purpose to study physical and chemical parameter. Pollution growth, urbanization, modernization the quality of water is degrading day by day. Polluted water is the main cause of degradation of water quality. Water pollution is a state of deviation from the pure condition, whereby its normal function and properties are affected. Or, water can be regarded polluted when it changes its quality or composition either naturally or as a result of human activities, thus, becoming less suitable for drinking , domestic, agricultural, industrial, recreational, wildlife and other uses for which it would have been otherwise suitable in its natural and unmodified state.


Sources of water pollution:
The common sources of water pollution can range from purely natural to several anthropogenic activities like discharge of domestic and industrial waste water etc.  Some common sources of water pollution are:
             I.      Natural sources and run-off
          II.      Domestic sewages and wastes
       III.      Agricultural wastes
       IV.      Industrial wastes
          V.      Leaching
Water can be regarded as polluted when it changes its quality of composition wither naturally or as a result of human activities, thus becoming less suitable for drinking, domestic, agricultural, industrial, industrial, recreational, wildlife and other uses. Majority of water pollutants are however in the form of chemicals which remain dissolved of suspended in water and give an environmental response, which is not acceptable. These pollutants highly affect human health along with other living organisms and also cause corrosiveness, hardness, toxicity etc.
Due to lack of access to clean water, each year millions of people around the world are affected from water borne diseases and other diseases. In Nepal, there’s lack of adequate supply of drinking water in many places and even the available water is not safe enough due to the lack of proper treatment and contamination during the distribution. The health profile of Nepal reveals a high incidence of illnesses related to water, sanitation and personal hygiene. It is estimated that 40 per 1000 causes of child morbidity and mortality is related to water-borne diseases, contributing to 16.5% of deaths in infants. Drinking of water quality in Kathmandu valley is clearly below international standards.
Thus, the parameters like pH, conductivity,hardness, chloride, COD, DO of several samples are tested so as to compare them with WHO standard and to know whether they are suitable for any human uses.



These parameters are specifically tested because:
  • Temperature affects the chemical and biological reactions in water like its increment accelerated chemical reactions, reduce solubility of gases, elevate metabolic activity of organisms etc.
  • DO is for higher aquatic diversity, the lesser DO may move away some sensitive aquatic animals.
  • Chloride are not usually harmful to people but the sodium part of table salt has been linked to heart and kidney disease.
  • Hardness is not health hazard but the hard water contributes a small amount toward calcium and magnesium human dietary needs.
  • COD gives the measure of total quantity of oxygen required to oxidize all organic material into carbon dioxide and water.
  • Leaching


HEALTH EFFECTS DUE TO WATER POLLUTION
  1. Polluted water of river, ponds, and lakes harm the health of living beings including human beings.
  2. Polluted water causes several diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery and typhoid.
  3. Polluted water if irrigated to agricultural land it affects young plants, seedlings, and living beings.
  4. Polluted water if used to clean vegetables, foods, fruits etc they carry germs and diseases with them and when we eat them we will suffer from various diseases.
Polluted water generates bad smell to its surrounding. It pollutes the settlement area and its environment





OBJECTIVES:

The objective of the project is as follows:
ü  To collect water samples from a specified site of distribution of a water source.
ü  To test the water sample for various physical and chemical parameters like:
ü  Color and Odor
ü  Turbidity
ü  Temperature
ü  Chemical oxygen demand (COD),
ü  Dissolved metal and salts (sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium) etc.
ü  To compare the quality parameters of water sample from our specified site to those of other sites of the same source collected by other groups so that we can find out the level of pollution of the river at different sites during its distribution.
ü  To identify the major pollutants in water.

The site we had chosen for the sample collection was a small river from Dhulikhel,Kavre.
We collected the second sample from the well which was around 10m away from the river. It is a common well in the area and the people around the area come over there to take water for several purpose.
The various factors are decreasing the water quality of the river. Some of these factors include:
1.   Increasing population
2.      Direct disposal of untreated sewage into the river
3.      Uncontrolled sand mining
4.   Improper solid waste disposal
5.      Rapid construction of industries
6.      Uncontrolled squatter settlement
7.    Leaching
Water quality is a term used to describe the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water, usually in respect to its suitability for a particular purpose. Assessment of the occurrence of chemicals that can harm water quality, such as nutrients and pesticides in water resources, requires recognition of complicated interconnections among surface water and ground water, atmospheric contributions, natural landscape features, human activities, and aquatic health. The vulnerability of surface water and ground water to degradation depends on a combination of natural landscape features, such as geology, topography, and soils; climate and atmospheric contributions; and human activities related to different land uses and land-management practices. Water quality is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water, characterized through the methods of hydrometry. The primary bases for such characterization are parameters which relate to drinking water, safety of human contact and for health of ecosystems.















Instrumentation
ANALYTICAL METHODS
2.2.1) SPECTROPHOTOMETRY

Fig: - Spectrophotometer                                fig: - schematic diagram
A spectrophotometer consists of two instruments, namely a spectrometer for producing light of any selected color (wavelength), and a photometer for measuring the intensity of light. The instruments are arranged so that liquid in a cuvette can be placed between the spectrometer beam and the photometer. The amount of light passing through the tube is measured by the photometer. The photometer delivers a voltage signal to a display device, normally a galvanometer. The signal changes as the amount of light absorbed by the liquid changes. If development of color is linked to the concentration of a substance in solution then that concentration can be measured by determining the extent of absorption of  light at the appropriate wavelength. For example hemoglobin appears red because the hemoglobin absorbs blue and green light rays much more effectively than red. The degree of absorbance of blue or green light is proportional to the concentration of hemoglobin.
When monochromatic light (light of a specific wavelength) passes through a solution there is usually a quantitative relationship (Beer's law) between the solute concentration and the intensity of the transmitted light, that is,
I=IO*10-kcl
where I sub 0 is the intensity of transmitted light using the pure solvent, I is the intensity of the transmitted light when the colored compound is added, c is concentration of the colored compound, l is the distance the light passes through the solution, and k is a constant. If the light path l is a constant, as is the case with a spectrophotometer, Beer's law may be written,
I/IO=10-kc=T
where k is a new constant and T is the transmittance of the solution. There is a logarithmic relationship between transmittance and the concentration of the colored compound. Thus,
-log T= log 1/T= kc =optical density
The O.D. is directly proportional to the concentration of the colored compound. Most spectrophotometers have a scale that reads both in O.D. (absorbance) units, which is a logarithmic scale, and in % transmittance, which is an arithmetic scale. As suggested by the above relationships, the absorbance scale is the most useful for colorimetric assays.[2]
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy
The most common spectrophotometers are used in the UV and visible regions of the spectrum, and some of these instruments also operate into the near-infrared region as well.
Visible region 400–700 nm spectrophotometry is used extensively in colorimetry science. Ink manufacturers, printing companies, textiles vendors, and many more, need the data provided through colorimetry. They take readings in the region of every 10–20 nanometers along the visible region, and produce a spectral reflectance curve or a data stream for alternative presentations. These curves can be used to test a new batch of colorant to check if it makes a match to specifications e.g., iso printing standards.
Traditional visual region spectrophotometers cannot detect if a colorant or the base material has fluorescence. This can make it difficult to manage color issues if for example one or more of the printing inks is fluorescent. Where a colorant contains fluorescence, a bi-spectral fluorescent spectrophotometer is used. There are two major setups for visual spectrum spectrophotometers, d/8 (spherical) and 0/45. The names are due to the geometry of the light source, observer and interior of the measurement chamber. Scientists use this machine to measure the amount of compounds in a sample. If the compound is more concentrated more light will be absorbed by the sample; within small ranges, the Beer-Lambert law holds and the absorbance between samples vary with concentration linearly. In the case of printing measurements two alternative settings are commonly used- without/with uv filter to control better the effect of uv brighteners within the paper stock.
2.2.2) Flame Photometry
Fig: - Compressor unit                                Fig: - Flame Photometry
Fig: - schematic diagram of flame photometry
Flame photometry is an atomic emission method for the routine detection of metal salts, principally Na, K, Li, Ca, and Ba. Quantitative analysis of these species is performed by measuring the flame emission of solutions containing the metal salts. Solutions are aspirated  into the flame. The hot flame evaporates the solvent, atomizes the metal, and excites a valence electron to an upper state. Light is emitted at characteristic wavelengths for each metal as the electron returns to the ground state. Optical filters are used to select the emission wavelength monitored for the analyte species. Comparison of emission intensities of unknowns to either that of standard solutions, or to those of an internal standard, allows quantitative analysis of the analyte metal in the sample solution.
Flame photometry is a simple, relatively inexpensive, high sample throughput method used for clinical, biological, and environmental analysis. The low temperature of the natural gas and air flame, compared to other excitation methods such as arcs, sparks, and rare gas plasmas, limit the method to easily ionized metals. Since the temperature isn't high enough to excite transition metals, the method is selective toward detection of alkali and alkali earth metals. On the other hand, the low temperatures renders this method susceptible to certain disadvantages, most of them related to interference and the stability (or lack thereof) of the flame and aspiration conditions. Fuel and oxidant flow rates and purity, aspiration rates, solution viscosity, concomitants in the samples, etc affect these. It is therefore very important to measure the emission of the standard and unknown solutions under conditions that are as nearly identical as possible.
This experiment will serve as an introduction to sodium analysis by flame emission photometry and will demonstrate the effects of cleanliness and solution viscosity on the observed emission intensity readings. The instrument is calibrated with a series of standard solutions that cover the range of concentrations expected of the samples. Standard calibrations are commonly used in instrumental analysis. They are useful when sample concentrations may vary by several orders of magnitude and when the value of the analyte must be known with a high degree of accuracy. This experiment does not produce hazardous waste.[3]
2.2.3) Titration
It is the normal titration method in which first of all the volume of analyte used is observed and then the calculation is done by using stoichiometric relation.






Discussion
ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENT PHYSIO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS of the sample and obtained Results
Physical parameters:
Colour:
Observation of the colour of the water sample was done in the laboratory by direct observation
Temperature:
Temperature is the degree of hotness ro coldness og the body ans is one of the most important factor to be measured for the assessment of water quality.
Chemical parameters:
Total Suspended solids (TSS):
1)      100 ml of the sample  taken.
2)      Filtration through Whatmann’s 4-D filter paper was done.
3)      Gravimetric method of analysis.

Total Dissolved solids (TDS):
1)      The filtrate of the water sample taken in the porcelain basin.
2)      Gravimetric method of analysis was used.


Dissolved oxygen:
Dissolved oxygen is the amount of gaseous oxygen dissolved in water which is readily available for aquatic organism as well as fishes. DO is important for aquatic diversity. if amount of DO decrease then there will be less aquatic organism in water, they move away, weaken or die.
Fresh water contains nearly 250 ppm of oxygen. More dissolved Oxygen less polluted is the water and vice versa.

Chemical oxygen demand:
Chemical oxygen demand is the method of determining the organic load og water which is biological oxygen demand.it is based on the chemical oxidation of material in the presence of catalyst by cr2o7—in 50% sulphuric acid.
Most of the organic matter decomposes and produces CO2 and H2O when boiled with a mixture of potassium dichromate and sulphuric acid. A sample is refluxed with a known amount of potassium dichromate in sulphuric acid medium and the excess of dichromate is titrated against ferrous ammonium sulphate. The amount of dichromate consumed is proportional to the oxygen required to oxidize the organic matter.

           Chromium (Cr) and Manganese (Mn):
            Determination by UV spectrophotom
 Sodium (Na) and Potassium (K):
Determination by using flame photometer.
Iron(II):
Determination by 1, 10-Phenonthralin method
Chloride ions(Cl-)
·         5 ml of sample was taken in porcelain basin and it was diluted to about 25ml with water
·         5 to 6 drpos of k2cr2o4 was added
·         Titration with standard sliver nitrate solution was done till the brick red tinge appeared.

SAMPLE COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND SAMPLING SITE SELECTION
·         The survey is for the identification of existing situation of water quality of a particular site. Water sample was collected from dhulikhel river and ground water nearby.
·         The water sample was collected in bottles at the site of collection.
·         The collected water sample was brought in the lab maintaining minimal chemical changes as far as possible. The minimal chemical change was maintained with the help of preservatives.

The chemicals we used as preservatives are as follows:
Chemicals
Used for analysis of
Mercuric chloride (Hg2Cl2 )
Nitrate , Phosphate, Nitrite
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4 )
Dissolved oxygen, chemical oxygen demand
Nitric acid (HNO3)
Hardness, metal ions

Standard values of the water quality parameters as given by WHO
S.N o
Parameters
Standards
1.
Dissolved Oxygen
No guidelines
2.
Chemical oxygen demand
No guidelines
3.
Iron
1 mg/l
4.
Nitrate (NO3)
50 mg/l
5.
Nitrite (NO2)
50 mg/l
6.
Manganese (Mn)
0.5 mg/l
7.
Chromate (Cr)
0.05 mg/l
8.
Phosphate

9.
Potassium
1.2mg/l
10.
Sodium (Na)
200 mg/l
11.
Chloride ions
250 mg/l

EXPERIMENTAL SECTION
PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
The water sample was taken from surface and ground water sources in dhulikhel, Kavre.
The different physical parameters of the water were measured and following results were obtained:
For surface water:
·         Temperature:200 C
·         Turbidity: clear
·         Conductance:
·         Ph:

For ground water:
·         Temperature:240c
·         Turbidity: clear
·         Conductance:79
·         Ph:5.04

MEASURING TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS AND TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS
50 ml of water sample was taken. The weight of the filter paper was taken as w1 and the weight of the porcelain basin was taken to be w2.The water sample was filtered and the filtrate was dried by the help of a Bunsen burner to obtain the dissolved solid. The weight of the dry mass was taken to be w3.The dry weight of the filter paper was w4.So,
w3-w2= dissolved solid
w4-w1= suspended solids

Observation:
Source
Surface water
Ground water

W1(gm)
W2(gm)
W1(gm)
W2(gm)
Total suspended particles
0.95
0.94
0.92
0.94
Total dissolved solids
54.71
54.72
82.01
82.05







CALCULATION:
For surface water:
TDS= W2-W1
= 54.72-54.71
= 0.01 gm
TSS= W2-W1
= 0.94-0.92
= 0.02 gm
For ground water:
TDS= W2-W1
= 82.05-82.01
=0.04 g
TSS= W2-W1
= 0.94-0.92 =0.02

TO DETERMINE THE DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO) PRESENT IN GIVEN WATER SAMPLE.
Dissolved oxygen is an index of physical and biological process going on in water. Non polluted water is normally saturated with dissolved oxygen, which contains near 250 ppm of 02.The more the dissolved oxygen the less is the polluted water. There are two main source by which water can get dissolved oxygen i.e. diffusion from air and photosynthetic activities within water.
Diffusion oxygen from air to water is physical phenomenon and is influenced by factors which affect the oxygen solubility like temperature, water movements and salinity etc. Photosynthetic activity is a biological process carried out by autotrophs and depends on autotrophic population, light condition sand available gases etc.
Reactions involved:
MnSO4 + KOH →→→Mn (OH) 2 + K2SO4
2Mn (OH) 2 +O2 →→→ 2MnO (OH) 2
MnO (OH) 2 +H2SO4 →→→ MnSO4 + 2H2O +O
2KI + H2SO4 +O→→→ K2SO4 + H2O + I2
I2 + 2 Na2S2O3 →→→ Na2S4O6 +2 NaI

From equations:
1 mole of Na2S2O3  = 1 mole of I2 = 1 mole of O = 1 mole of MnO(OH)2   = ½ mole of O2.
i.e. 2 mole of   Na2S2O3   = ½ mole of O2
1 mole of    Na2S2O3   = ¼ mole of O2

Materials and reagents required:
v  BOD bottles (150 ml)
v  Manganous sulphate solution
v  Alkaline Potassium iodide solution
v  Sodium thiosulphate solution ( 0.025M )
v  Starch indicator
v  Conc. H2SO4 ( sp. gravity 1.84,18M )

Procedure:
1)      Fill the BOD bottles with sample water without any bubbling.
2)      Add 1 ml each of Manganous sulphate and alkaline Potassium Iodide solution , so that some precipitation occurs.(shake)
3)      Further add 2 ml of concentrated H2SO4 to dissolve the ppt.
4)      Pipette out 100 ml of sample. Add 1 ml of starch and titrate with 0.005 M Na2S2O3 solution ( standardize using standard K2Cr2O7)

Dissolved Oxygen (DO):
S.N
Sample source
Volume of sample(ml)
Initial reading(ml)
Final reading(ml)
Difference(ml)
Concurrent reading(ml)
1
Surface water
25
0
1.9
1.9
1.9
2
Ground water
25
1.9
2.5
0.6
0.6

Calculation:
N1V1= N2V2
1/100*V1=100*N2
N2=V1/10000

So,
Strength of dissolved oxygen (DO) = N2*equivqlent weight
(surface water)                                   = V1/10000*8gm/l
=V1/10000*8*1000
=0.8V1 ppm
= 0.8*1.9 ppm =1.52 ppm
Strength of dissolved oxygen (DO) = N2*equivqlent weight
(ground water)                        = V1/10000*8gm/l
=V1/10000*8*1000
=0.8V1 ppm
= 0.8*0.6 ppm =0.48 ppm

Results:
DO in surface water= 1.52ppm
DO in ground water=0.48ppm









DETERMINATION OF SODIUM BY USING FLAME PHOTOMETER
Flame photometry is based on the fact that compounds of alkali and alkaline earth metals can be thermally excited in a low temperature flame and when the atoms return to the ground state they emit radiation which lies mainly in the visible region of the spectrum. Each element emits radiation at a wavelength specific to that element. E.g. 589nm, K 766nm, Ca 622nm, Li 670.8nm, etc.
Over a certain range of concentration the intensity of the emitted radiation is directly proportional to the number of atoms returning to the ground state. This in turn is proportional to the absolute quantity of the species volatized in the flame i.e. light emitted is proportional to the sample concentration. The light emitted by the element at its characteristics wavelength is isolated by an optical filter and the intensity of that light is measured by photo detector which provides a signal proportional to the sample concentration. Such an electrical signal is processed with the help of analog to digital converter and the microprocessor.

Procedure
1)      Prepare standard solutions of sodium chloride (1 ans 100 ppm respectively)
2)      Determine the concentration of sodium in the given sample using flame photometer which directly provides the required value.
Sample:
Surface water = 8.7ppm
Ground water = 8.4ppm

Result:
The concentration of sodium was found out to be  8.7ppm in the surface water while in ground water is   8.4ppm.


DETERMINATION OF CHLORIDE IONS PRESENT IN SAMPLE
Theory:
Chlorine occurs naturally with metal. It is present as negative ions i.e. Cl-.The commonest chloride compound is sodium chloride, which occurs in sea water and rock salt. Each kilogram of sea water contains about 30 g of sodium chloride. Chlorine is used as a cheap oxidant in the manufacture of bromine. It is also used in the manufacture of many familiar materials like hydrogen chloride. Chlorine compounds have been developed as degreasing solvents such as tetrachloromethane and trichloroethane,as, as plastics such as PVC, as disinfectants such as dettol and as pesticides like DDT, BHC etc. Chlorides are determined by titration with Silver nitrate.

Procedure:
Standardization 0f AgNO3  solution
Pipette out 10 ml of standard 0.005 NaCl solutions into 250ml conical flask resting on a white title. Add 1 ml of 5% K2CrO4 indicator. Add AgNO3 solution slowly from the burette, while stirring the liquid constantly, until the reddish borwn ppt  formed by the addition of each drop begins to disappear more slowly. This indicates the approach the end point.  Continue the addition of AgNO3 solution slowly, drop by drop, until the solution assumes a faint but distinct reddish brown colour which persists even after shaking the solution briskly. This marks the end point. Note the confirmed titration value.

Indicator blank correction
Determine the indicator blank correction by adding 1 ml of the indicator to volume of distilled water equals to that of the final volume in the titration and then titrating with silver nitrate as described above. The indicator blank correction, which should not be more than about 0.1 ml, should be deducted from each titrated value.


Titration with test sample
Add Transfer 50ml of the water sample into a 250ml conical flask ,added 1ml of K2CrO4 indicator and titrate against AgNO3( 0.005M) solution slowly ,drop by drop, until the solution assumes a faint but distinct reddish brown colour, which persists even after shaking the solution briskly. This marks the end point. Note the confirmed titrated reading.

Chloride:
S.N
Sample source
Volume of sample (ml)
Initial reading(ml)
Final reading(ml)
Difference(ml)
Concurrent(ml)
1
Surface water
50
0
7.7
7.7
7.7
2
Ground water
50
0
7.3
7.3
7.3

Calculation:
For river:
100 ml of 0.001M AgN03 contains 0.001 moles
1 ml of 0.001M AgN03 contains 0.001/100 moles
0.4 ml of 0.01M AgN03 contains 0.01/1000 *0.4 moles =4*10^-6 moles
And,
No of moles of chloride ion = 4*10^-6
We know,
50 ml of sample contains 4*10^-6 moles of chloride ion
1 ml of sample contains 4*10^-6/25 moles of chloride ion
1000 ml of sample contains 4*10^-6/25 *1000 moles of chloride ion =1.6*10^-4 moles
= 1.6*10^-4*7.7
= 5.68*10^-3 gm
= 5.68 mg
The concentration of the chloride ion in the sample = 5.68 ppm

For tube well:
1000 ml of 0.01M AgN03 contains 0.01 moles
1 ml of 0.01M AgN03 contains 0.01/1000 moles
0.4 ml of 0.01M AgN03 contains 0.01/1000 *0.3moles = 3*10^-6moles
And,
No of moles of chloride ion = 3*10^-6
We know,
25 ml of sample contains 3*10^-6 moles of chloride ion
1 ml of sample contains 3*10^-6/25 moles of chloride ion
1000 ml of sample contains 3*10^-6/25 *1000 moles of chloride ion =1.2*10^-4 moles
= 1.2*10^-4*35.5
= 4.26*10^-3 gm
= 4.26 mg




DETERMINATION OF POTASSIUM BY USING FLAME PHOTOMETER
Flame photometry is based on the fact that compounds of alkali and alkaline earth metals can be thermally excited in a low temperature flame and when the atoms return to the ground state they emit radiation which lies mainly in the visible region of the spectrum. Each element emits radiation at a wavelength specific to that element. E.g. 589nm, K 766nm, Ca 622nm, Li 670.8nm, etc.
Over a certain range of concentration the intensity of the emitted radiation is directly proportional to the number of atoms returning to the ground state. This in turn is proportional to the absolute quantity of the species volatized in the flame i.e. light emitted is proportional to the sample concentration. The light emitted by the element at its characteristics wavelength is isolated by an optical filter and the intensity of that light is measured by photo detector which provides a signal proportional to the sample concentration. Such an electrical signal is processed with the help of analog to digital converter and the microprocessor.

Procedure
1)      Prepare standard solutions of potassium chloride (1 ppm and 100 ppm respectively)
2)      Determine the concentration of potassium in the given sample using flame photometer which directly provides the required value.


Surface water=1ppm
Ground water=3ppm

Result:
The concentration of potassium in surface water was found to be 1 ppm while the concentration in the ground water was found to be 3 ppm


SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATION OF IRON CONTENT IN SUPPLIED IRON(III) SOLUTION

Iron (III) reacts with thiocyanate to give a series of intensely red-colored compound, which remain in true solution. Iron (III) does not react. Depending upon the thiocyanate concentration ,a series of complexes can be obtained; these complexes are red colored and can be formulated as [Fe(SCN)]2+,at 0.1M thiocyanate concentration it is largely [Fe(SCN)2]+, and at very high thiocyanate concentration it is [Fe(SCN)2]3-.In colorometric determination a large excess of thiocyanate should be used, since this increases the intensity and also the stability of the colour. Strong acids (hydrochloric or nitric acid concentration 0.05-0.5M) should be present to suppress the hydrolysis.
Fe3+ + 3 H20------Fe (OH)3 +3H+

Procedure:
1) Prepare the following solutions
a)      Standard iron (III) ion solution. Dissolve 0.864 g ammonium iron (III) sulphate in water, add 100 cm3 conc. HCL and dilute to 1 dm3. 1 cm3 of this solution contains 0.1mg of Fe.
b)      Potassium thiocyanate solution: Dissolve 20g potassium thiocyanate in 100 cm3 water. (2M ammonium thiocyanate solution can also be used).

2)      Take 25cm3 of standard iron (III) ion solution in 50cm3 volumetric flasks, add 5 cm3 of the thiocyanate solution and 3 cm3 of 4M nitric acid. Add distilled water to the mark. Follow similar procedure for the sample also. Prepare the blank solution using the same quantities of reagents except iron (III) ion solution. Dilute the measured portions of standard iron (III) thiocyanate solution with distilled water to prepare five solutions of different concentrations.

3)      Determine the absorbance of different standard solution and sample solutions of iron (III) at 480nm.Plot the absorbances against concentrations of the solution, i.e. calibration curve. Determine the concentration of iron (III) in solution.

S.no
Concentration(M)
Absorbance
1.
0ppm
0
2.
10ppm
0.336
3.
20ppm
0.600
4.
30ppm
0.779
5.
40ppm
1.039
6.
50 ppm
1.403
7.surface water
0.67
0.143
8.ground water
0.47
0.101

Graph:

Calculation:
The absorbance of the given unknown solution for surface water is  0.143
and the absorbance for ground water is 0.101
From the graph, the concentration of unknown solution of surface water is 0.67 ppm and ground water is  0.47 ppm.
SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATION OF THE AMOUNT OF IRON(II) IN SUPPLIED SOLUTION BY 1,10-PHENONTHRALINE METHOD  
Procedure
1)      Prepare following solutions:
           a) 1, 10-phenonthraline: 0.25% solution of the monohydrate in water.
b) 0.1M sodium acetate and 0.1M acetic acid (glacial acetic acid is 1.7M approx.)
c) Hydroxyl ammonium chloride: 10% aqueous solution.
d) Buffer: Mix 65ml of 0.1M acetic acid and 35ml of 0.1M sodium acetate
e) Standard iron (II) solution (0.1mg/ml): Dissolve calculated amount of Mohr’s                                salt in distilled water. You need about 50ml of this solution. Dilute this solution so as to obtain solutions of five different concentrations of the range 0.1-0.5 mg of          iron/10ml of solution.
2)      Take 10ml of standard iron (II) solution (containing not more than 0.5mg of iron)     in a 50ml volumetric flask, add 5ml of hydroxyl ammonium chloride (10%) solution, add acetate buffer to maintain the Ph around 4.5-4.7(note the require volume of buffer).Add 4ml of 1, 10-Phenonthraline solution, dilute to 50ml, shake the solution and measure the absorbance (at 515nm) after 5-10 minutes using proper blank solution. Measure the absorbance of other standard solution and  supplied solution in similar way. Determine the amount of iron (II) in supplied  solution from calibration curve.
S.NO
Concentration
Absorbance
1.
0
0
2.
1
0.231.
3.
5
0.901
4.
10
1.436
5.
15
1.467
6.
20
2.613
7.Surface water
1.34
0.167
8.ground water
0.69
0.0868

Graph:

Result:
The absorbance of the given unknown solution for surface water is 0.167
And the absorbance for ground water is 0.0868
From the graph, the concentration of unknown solution of surface water is 1.34 ppm and ground water is 0.69ppm

DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF PHOSPHORUS AS PHOSPHATE IN SUPPLIED SOLUTION

Procedure
1)      Prepare the following solutions:
a)      Ammonium molybdate solution: Solution 1.Dissolve 2.5gm of ammonium molybdate in 17.5ml of distilled water. Solution 2: Add 28ml of conc.H2SO4 to 40ml of distilled water and cool. Mix two solutions 1 and 2 and dilute to 100ml.
b)      Stannous chloride solution (2.5g/100ml of glycerol).Mix required amount of stannous chloride in 20ml of glycerol by heating on a water bath for rapid dissolution.
c)      Standard Phosphate solution (10mg of P/litre).Dissolve 5.03 gm of potassium dihydrogen phosphate in distilled water and make up the volume to 1 litre.Dilute a portion of this solution 100 times to prepare 500ml of final (stock) solution. The final solution will be 10mg of phosphorus/litre.

2) Prepare 50ml of standard phosphate solution of various dilutions having
     Concentrations in the range of 0.1-1.0mg P/litre at the interval of 0.1 by diluting
     the standard phosphate solution(10mgP/litre).Add 2ml of ammonium molybdate
     followed by 5 drops of SnCl2 solution. Take the reading (at any fixed time after 5
    minutes and before 12 minutes of the addition of last reagent) at 688nm.

3)      To 50ml of clear sample taken in conical flask add 2ml of ammonium molybdate followed by 5 drops of SnCl2 solution. Take the absorbance reading at 690nm.

4)      Plot calibration curve and determine the concentration of the supplied solution.

S.no
Concentration
Absorbance
1
0
0.
2
1
0.128
3
2.5
0.141
4
5
0.101
5
10
0.106
6
20
0.095
7.surface water
13.243
0.098
8.ground water
16.89
0.125

Graph:
Result:
The absorbance of the given unknown solution for surface water is 0.098
and the absorbance for ground water is 0.125
From the graph, the concentration of unknown solution of surface water is 13.243 ppm and ground water is  16.89 ppm



TO DETERMINE THE CONCENTRATION OF NITROGEN AS NITRATE IN WATER SAMPLE(POTASSIUM NITRATE SOLUTION) BY USING UV-VISIBLE SPECTROPHOTOMETER

Potassium nitrate is an example of an inorganic compound which absorbs mainly in the ultra violet, and can be employed to obtain experience in the use of manually operated UV\Visible spectrophotometer. We can use automatic recording spectrophotometer also.
The absorbance and the % transmission of an approximately 0.1M potassium nitrate solution are measured over the wavelength of 304nm.
The three normal means of presenting the spectrophotometric data are described as below. By far the most common procedure is to plot absorbance against wavelength (in nm).The wavelength corresponding to the absorbance maximum (or minimum transmission) is to read i.e. (302.5 to305nm, here we supposed to be 304nm).This wavelength is used for the preparation of calibration curve. This point is chosen for 2 reasons:
1)      It is the region in which the greatest difference in the absorbance between any different concentrations will be obtained, thus giving the maximum sensitivity for concentration studies.
2)      As it is turning point on the curve it gives the least alternation in the absorbance value for any slight variation in wavelength.
No general rule can be given concerning the strength of the solution to be prepared, as this will depend upon the spectrophotometer used for the study .Usually a 0.01M to 0.001M solution is sufficiently concentrated for the highest absorbance, and other concentrations are prepared by dilution. The concentration should be selected such that the absorbance lies between 0.3 to 1.5.For the determination of the concentration of the substance select the wavelength 304nm and construct the calibration curve by measuring the absorbance of 4-5 concentrations of the substance( e.g. 2,4,6,8,10 gm KNO3 L-1)  at the selected wavelength .Plot the absorbance (ordinates) against the concentration (abscissa). If the compound obeys the Beer’s law, a linear calibration curve passing through the origin, will be obtained. If the absorbance of the unknown solution is measured the concentration can be obtained from the calibration curve.
If it is known that the compound obeys Beer’s law the molar absorption coefficient E can be determined of the absorbance of a standard solution. The unknown concentration is then calculated using the value of the constant E and the measured value of the absorbance under the same conditions.
Procedure:
Dry some pure potassium nitrate at 110oc and cool in the desiccator.Prepare an aq. Solution containing 10gl-1.With the aid of a precision spectrophotometer and matched 1cm rectangular cell plot the data of absorbance against wavelength.
Use the value of the wavelength to determine the absorbance of solutions of potassium nitrate solution containing 2, 4, 6, and 8 g of potassium nitrate per litre. Plot the absorbance (ordinate) against concentration (abscissa).Determine the absorbance of an unknown solution of potassium nitrate and read the concentration from the calibration curve.
S.no
Concentration
Absorbance
1.
0.2
0.608
2.
0.4
0.818
3.
0.6
0.953
4.
0.8
1.115
5.Surface water
0.31
0.497
6.ground water
0.34
0.547






Graph:
:
Result:
The absorbance of the given unknown solution for surface water is  0.497
and the absorbance for ground water is 0.547
From the graph, the concentration of unknown solution of surface water is 0.31 ppm and ground water is  0.34 ppm.


DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF NITROGEN AS NO2-  IN SUPPLIED SOLUTION
Procedure:
1) Prepare 100ml each of:
a)      EDTA solution (5.0mg/ml) taking calculated amount of disodium salt EDTA in distilled water.
b)      Sulphanilic acid (6.0mg/ml in 20% HCL(v/v) by dissolving required amount of  Sulphanilic acid in a solution already containing 20ml of conc. HCL in 70ml of water. Make the volume up to 100ml.
c)      1-naphaathylamine hydrochloride (6.0mg/ml in 1% HCL(v/v) by dissolving calculated amount of the substance in about 50ml of water containing 1ml of conc.HCL.Dilute the solution to 100ml.Filter the solution if precipitates occur.

2) Prepare 100ml of the standard nitrite solution having the concentration of the range 0.1-1.0 mg/litre NO2-N at interval of 0.1.Take 50ml of standard NO2- in a conical flask ,add 1ml of each –EDTA,Sulphanilic acid ,1-naphthylamine hydrochloride and sodium acetate solution in sequence. Also prepare blank solution.

3) A Wine red colour will appear in presence of nitrites. Wavelength of 304m was fixed for the absorbance reading  the process was repeated for other standard solutions and sample solution.

4)      the calibration curve was plotted and the concentration of nitrite was determined.
S.no
Volume(ml)
Absorbance
1
20
0.608
2.
40
0.818
3.
60
0.953
4.
80
1.115
5.surface water
37.79
0.601
6.ground water
32.26
0.513

Graph:

Results:
The absorbance of the given unknown solution  for surface water is 0.601 and that of ground water is 0.513
From the graph, the concentration of unknown solution
For surface water is (37.79*2)is 75.58 ppm
Ground water is (32.26*2) is 64.52 ppm.

SIMULTANEOUS SPECTROPHOTOMETRIC DETERMINATION OF CHROMIUM  AND MANGANESE
This is concerned with the simultaneous determination of two solutes in a solution. For manganate, the absorption peak is at 545 nm where as for dichromate, it is 440 nm.

Reagents:
Potassium dichromate: 0.002  M,0.004 M,0.006 M and 0.008 M in 1M H2SO4 and 0.7 M
Phosphoric acid, prepared from the analytical reagents.
Potassium permagnate: 0.001M, 0.002M,0.003M, and 0.004M in 1M H2SO4 and 0.7 M
Phosphoric acid, prepared from the analytical reagents.
All flasks should be scrupulously clean.

Procedure:
For manganate:
Mix 1M concentrated sulphuric acid with 0.7M phosphoric acid and make a solution of 1 litre. Then, take 0.01M potassium permanganate and with the help of the solution made before, dilute it to make the concentration of 0.002M, 0.004M, 0.006M and 0.008M.In this case, the blank used is the same solution of 1M concentrated sulphuric acid with 0.7M phosphoric acid. Now, with these five solutions, make the standard curve for magnitude at 545nm.Again, for the determination of manganate in sample, mix phosphoric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid with the sample to make it up to 100ml. Finally, measure the absorbance of the sample.


Table:
S.no
Concentration(M)
Absorbance
1.
0
O
2
0.002
0.49
3.
0.004
0.85
4
0.006
1.25
5
0.008
1.67
7.surface water
0.0042
0.890
8 ground water
0.0004s
0.082
Graph:

Result:
The absorbance of the given unknown solution
Surface water=0.901
Ground water=0.087

From the graph, the concentration of unknown solution
surface water=
ground water=


For chromate:
Mix 1M concentrated sulphuric acid with 0.7M phosphoric acid and make a solution of 1 litre. Then, take 0.01M potassium dichromate and with the help of the solution made before, dilute it to make the concentration of 0.001M, 0.002M, 0.003M, and 0.004M. In this case, the blank used is the same solution of 1M concentrated sulphuric acid with 0.7M phosphoric acid. Now with these five solutions, make the standard curve for dichromate at 440nm. Again, for the sample, mix phosphoric acid and concentrated sulphuric acid with the sample to make it up to 100ml. Finally, measure the absorbance of the sample


Table:
s.no
Concentration(M)
Absorbance
1
0
0
2
0.001
0.394
3
0.002
0.877
4
0.003
1.324
5
0.004
1.726
6.surface water
0.00037
0.163
7 ground water
0.00033
0.146


Graph:

Result:
The absorbance of the given unknown solution for Surface water is 0.163
And Ground water 0.146
From the graph, the concentration of unknown solution
Surface water is 0.0037
Ground water is 0.00033








RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
S.N
Parameter
Surface water
Concentration(ppm)
Ground water
Concentration(ppm)
  1.  
DO


  1.  
TDS


  1.  
Suspended Particles


  1.  
COD


  1.  
Chloride ion


  1.  
Sodium ion


  1.  
Pottasium ion


  1.  
Ferric ion


  1.  
Ferrous ion


  1.  
Nitrate ion


  1.  
Nitrite ion


  1.  
Phosphate ion


  1.  
Manganese ion


  1.  
Chromate ion










Disscussion:
The data we had obtained from the analysis was compared with the standard values that were given by WHO. According to WHO, there was no guidelines for DO, TDS, Suspended particles and Iron.  DO i.e. the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water is found to be very less than COD i.e. Chemical oxygen demand in both river water and pump water. Total dissolved solid (TDS) and Total suspended particles in the river is found to be greater than the pump water.  Chloride ions, Sodium ions, nitrate ions and nitrite ions in both of the samples are grater than the standard value. There is a slight change in the scenario with Manganese. The concentration of Manganese in the both of the sample water is grater than the standard.   In sample containing the river water, values for chromate ion is nearly equal to the value given by WHO that means the concentration of chromium in it is optimum

GANTT CHART

Works
Weeks with 6 hours
Proposal









Sample Collection









Lab analysis









Report









Presentation










Weeks-









CONCLUSION:

Various parameters of the water quality was tested for the samples taken from the river as well as the tube well nearby. The testing showed that parameters like Dissolved oxygen, Total Dissolved Solids, Suspended Particles, Chemical Oxygen Demand, Ferric ion, Nitrate ion, Chromate ion, and Manganese ion didn’t had any significant leaching while parameters like Sodium, Potassium, Chloride ion, Ferrous ion, Nitrite ion, and phosphate was found to be leached very significantly.
The concentrations of many parameters were found to exceed such limits. Those elements should be prevented from leaching .The concentration of these elements shouldn’t be increased in the river system by wasting dumps and throwing garbage into the river.















Reference
water sample test

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